SETTING THE STAGE The story of developed civilizations in the
Americas begins in a region called Mesoamerica. (See map on opposite page.)
This area stretches south from central Mexico to northern Honduras. It was
here, more than 3,000 years ago, that the first complex societies in the
Americas arose.
The Olmec
Mesoamerica’s first known
civilization builders were a people known as the Olmec. They began carving out
a society around 1200 B.C. in the jungles of southern Mexico. The Olmec
influenced neighboring groups, as well as the later civilizations of the
region. They often are called Mesoamerica’s “mother culture.” The Rise of Olmec
Civilization Around 1860, a worker clearing a field in the hot coastal plain of
southeastern Mexico uncovered an extraordinary stone sculpture. It stood five
feet tall and weighed an estimated eight tons. The sculpture was of an enormous
head, wearing a headpiece. (See History Through Art, pages 244–245.) The head
was carved in a strikingly realistic style, with thick lips, a flat nose, and
large oval eyes. Archaeologists had never seen anything like it in the
Americas. This head, along with others that were discovered later, was a
remnant of the Olmec civilization. The Olmec emerged about 1200 B.C. and
thrived from approximately 800–400 B.C. They lived along the Gulf Coast of
Mexico, in the modern-day Mexican states of Veracruz and Tabasco. Gulf Coast
Geography On the surface, the Gulf Coast seemed an unlikely site for a high
culture to take root. The region was hot and humid and covered with swamps and
jungle. In some places, giant trees formed a thick cover that prevented most
sunlight from reaching the ground. Up to 100 inches of rain fell every year.
The rainfall swelled rivers and caused severe flooding. However, the region
also had certain advantages. There were abundant deposits of salt and tar, as
well as fine clay used in making pottery. There was also wood and rubber from
the rain forest. The hills to the north provided hard stone from which the
Olmec could make tools and monuments. The rivers that laced the region provided
a means of transport. Most important, the flood plain of these rivers provided
fertile land for farming.
The Olmec used their
resources to build thriving communities. The oldest site, San Lorenzo, dates back
to around 1150 B.C. Here archaeologists uncovered important clues that offered
a glimpse into the Olmec world. Olmec Society At San Lorenzo archaeologists
discovered earthen mounds, courtyards, and pyramids. Set among these earthworks
were large stone monuments. They included columns, altars, and more colossal,
sculpted heads, which may have represented particular Olmec rulers. These giant
monuments weigh as much as 44 tons. Some scholars think that Olmec workers may
have moved these sculptures over land on rolling logs to the river banks. From
there, they may have rafted the monuments along waterways to various sites. To
the east of San Lorenzo, another significant Olmec site, La Venta, rose around
900 B.C. Here, researchers discovered a 100-foot-high mound of earth and clay.
This structure may have served as the tomb of a great Olmec ruler. Known as the
Great Pyramid, the mound also may have been the center of the Olmec religion.
Experts believe the Olmec prayed to a variety of nature gods. Most of all, they
probably worshiped the jaguar spirit. Numerous Olmec sculptures and carvings
depict a half-human, half-jaguar creature. Some scholars believe that the
jaguar represented a powerful rain god. Others contend that there were several jaguar
gods, representing the earth, fertility, and maize. Trade and Commerce
Archaeologists once believed that sites such as La Venta were ceremonial
centers where important rituals were performed but few people lived. In recent
years, however, experts have begun to revise that view. The Olmec appear to
have been a prosperous people who directed a large trading network throughout
Mesoamerica. Olmec goods traveled as far as Mexico City to the north and
Honduras to the south. In addition, raw materials—including iron ore and
various stones—reached San Lorenzo from faraway regions. This trade network helped
boost the Olmec economy and spread Olmec influence. Decline of the Olmec For
reasons that are not fully understood, Olmec civilization eventually collapsed.
Scholars believe San Lorenzo was destroyed around 900 B.C. La Venta may have
fallen sometime around 400 B.C. Some experts speculate that outside invaders
caused the destruction. Others believe the Olmec may have destroyed their own
monuments upon the death of their rulers.
Zapotec Civilization
Arises
By the time Olmec civilization had collapsed, another people—the
Zapotec—were developing an advanced society to the southwest, in what is now
the Mexican state of Oaxaca (wuh•HAH•kah). Though they showed traces of Olmec
influence, the Zapotec built a unique civilization. Peoples of the Oaxaca
Valley Oaxaca is a rugged region of mountains and valleys in southern Mexico.
In the center of the state, three valleys meet to form a large open area known
as the Oaxaca Valley. This valley has fertile soil, a mild climate, and enough
rainfall to support agriculture. As a result, various peoples have made the
Oaxaca Valley their home, including the ancient Zapotec. For centuries the
Zapotec lived in scattered villages throughout the valley. By 1000 B.C.,
however, one site—San José Mogote—was emerging as the main power in the region.
At this site, the Zapotec constructed stone platforms. They also built temples
and began work on monumental sculptures. By 500 B.C. they had developed early
forms of writing and a calendar system. The Zapotec Flourish at Monte Albán
Around 500 B.C., Zapotec civilization took a major leap forward. High atop a
mountain at the center of the Oaxaca Valley, the Zapotec built the first real
urban center in the Americas, Monte Albán. This city,
with its commanding view of the entire valley, grew and prospered over
the next several centuries. By 200 B.C., Monte Albán was home to around 15,000
people. The city eventually would reach a peak population of almost 25,000. From
A.D. 250 to A.D. 700, Monte Albán was truly impressive. At the heart of the
city was a giant plaza paved with stones. Towering pyramids, temples, and palaces,
all made out of stone, surrounded this plaza. There was even an observatory
for observing the stars to establish a calendar. Nearby was a series
of stone carvings of corpses. Their facial features show an Olmec influence. For
more than a thousand years the Zapotec controlled the Oaxaca Valley and the
surrounding region. Sometime after A.D. 600, the Zapotec began to decline. Some
scholars believe they may have suffered a loss of trade or other economic
difficulties. As with the Olmec, the fall of Zapotec civilization remains a
puzzle.
The Early Mesoamericans’ Legacy
Although both the
Zapotec and Olmec civilizations eventually collapsed, each culture influenced
the Mesoamerican civilizations that followed. The Olmec Leave Their Mark The
Olmec contributed much to later Mesoamerican civilizations. They influenced the
powerful Maya, who will be discussed in Chapter 16. Olmec art styles,
especially the use of the jaguar motif, can be seen in the pottery and
sculpture of later peoples in the region. In addition, future Mesoamerican
societies copied the Olmec pattern of urban design. The Olmec also left behind
the notions of planned ceremonial centers, ritual ball games, and an elite
ruling class. And while there is no clear evidence that the Olmec used a
written language, their descendants or a related people carved out stone
symbols that may have influenced later glyph writing. Zapotec Contributions The
Zapotec left behind their own legacy. It included a hieroglyphic writing system
and a calendar system based on the movement of the sun. In addition, the
Zapotec are noted as the Americas’ first city builders. Monte Albán combined
ceremonial grandeur with residential living space. This style influenced the
development of future urban centers and became a hallmark of Mesoamerican
civilizations. As the Zapotec and Olmec flourished and then declined,
civilizations were also taking shape in South America. Along the rough and
mountainous terrain in what is now Peru, ancient peoples came together. There,
they created more advanced and complex societies.
